Ch-4 Thinkers, beliefs and Buildings
The sources to reconstruct Cultural
Developments of this period (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE)
1. Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical texts written
in various languages.
2. Large and impressive material remains including
monuments and inscriptions.
The mid-first millennium BCE is
often regarded as a turning point in world history:
1. This period saw the emergence of thinkers such
as Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in
Greece, and Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in India.
2. They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and
the relationship between human beings and the cosmic order (Universe)
3. This was also the time when new kingdoms and
cities were developing aii over the world
4. This was also the time when social and economic life was
changing in a variety of ways in the Ganga valley.
The sacrificial traditions (Vedic sacrifices)
1. The early Vedic tradition was one of the pre-existing
traditions of thought.
2. The Rig-Veda consists of
hymns in praise of a variety of deities, especially Agni, Indra and Soma.
3. Many of these hymns were chanted when
sacrifices were performed, where people prayed for cattle, sons, good
health, long life, etc.
4. At first, sacrifices were performed
collectively. Later some sacrifices were performed by the head of the
family for the wellbeing of the domestic unit.
5. More elaborate sacrifices, such as the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha, were
performed by chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana priests to conduct these
rituals.
New questions in the early period
1. Many people were curious about the meaning of
life, the possibility of life after death, karma and rebirth.
2. Such issues were hotly debated. Thinkers were
concerned with understanding and expressing the nature of the ultimate
reality.
Debates and discussions
1. There were as many as 64 sects or schools of
thought. Lively discussions and debates took place between the teachers of
these schools of thought.
2. Teachers like Buddha and Mahavira travelled from
place to place, trying to convince one another as well as laypersons, about
the validity of their philosophy or the way they understood the world.
3. Debates took place in the kutagarashala (a
hut with a pointed roof) and in groves where travelling mendicants halted.
4. If a philosopher succeeded in convincing one of
his rivals, the followers of the latter also became his disciples. So
support for any particular sect could grow and shrink over time.
5. Many of these teachers, including Mahavira and the
Buddha, questioned the authority of the Vedas.
Fatalists and materialists
1. Fatalists or Ajivikas those who believe that
everything is predetermined.
2. Materialists or Lokayatas those who believe
that everything is not predetermined.
3. Fatalist teacher, named Makkhali Gosala, says that
the wise and the fool cannot come out of karma. It can neither be
lessened nor increased.
4. Materialist teacher Ajita Kesakambalin says that a human
being is made up of the four elements. When he dies the earthy in him
returns to the earth, the fluid to water, the heat to fire, the windy to air,
and his senses pass into space. They do not survive after death.
The Message of Mahavira or philosophy of Jainism.
1. The important idea of Jainism is the entire
world is animated: even stones, rocks and water have life.
2. Non-injury to living beings, especially to
humans, animals, plants and insects, is central to Jainism
3. In fact the principle of ahimsa,
emphasized within Jainism, has left its mark on Indian thinking.
4. According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of
birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
5. Asceticism and penance are required to
free oneself from the cycle of karma. This can be achieved only by renouncing
the world.
Rules for Jain Monks
1. Jain monks and nuns took five vows such as to abstain
from killing. 2. To
abstain from Stealing 3.To
abstain from Lying 4. To
observe celibacy 5. To
abstain from possessing property.
Jain Literature and Spread of Jainism
1. The teachings of Mahavira were recorded by his
disciples. These were often in the form of stories, which could appeal to
ordinary people.
2. Jaina scholars produced a wealth of literature in a
variety of languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil.
3. For many centuries, manuscripts of these texts were
carefully preserved in libraries attached to jain temples.
4. Gradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India such
as Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
5. Some of the earliest stone sculptures associated
with Jainism were produced by devotees of the Jaina tirthankaras.
Spread of Buddhism
1. Buddhism grew rapidly both during the lifetime
of the Buddha and after his death, as it appealed to many people who dissatisfied
with existing religious practices.
2. Buddha’s messages metta (fellow
feeling) and karuna (compassion) spread across the
subcontinent and beyond Central Asia , China, Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka,
Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
3. Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed by carefully
editing, translating and analyzing the Buddhist texts.
4. Historians have also tried to reconstruct details
of his life from hagiographies.(Hagiography is a
biography of a saint or religious leader)
5. Many of these were written down at least a century
after the death of the Buddha, in an attempt to preserve memories of the
great teacher.
Life of Buddha (What were the traumatic incidents changed
the life of the Buddha?)
1. According to the traditions, Siddhartha was the
son of a chief of the Sakya clan. He had a sheltered upbringing within the
palace, avoiding the harsh realities of life.
2. One day he persuaded his charioteer to
take him into the city. His first journey into the world outside was
traumatic.
3. He was deeply anguished when he saw an old man, a
sick man and a corpse (dead body). He realized in
that moment that the decay and destruction of the human body was inevitable.
4. He also saw a homeless mendicant, who had
come to terms with old age and disease
5. Soon after, he left the palace and set out
in search of his own truth. Siddhartha explored several paths including
bodily mortification which led him to a situation of near death. He meditated
for several days and finally attained enlightenment. After this he came to be
known as the Buddha or Enlightened.
The
Teachings of the Buddha
1. According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient
(anicca) and constantly changing; it is also soulless (anatta)
as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it.
2. Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha)
is intrinsic to human existence.
3. By following the path of moderation between severe penance
and self-indulgence that human beings can come out of these worldly troubles.
4. The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation
of humans rather than of divine origin. Therefore, he advised kings
and gahapatis to be humane and ethical towards common people.
5. Individual effort was expected to transform social
relations. The Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action
as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation.
Followers
of the Buddha(monks and nuns)
1. According to Buddhist tradition, Buddha’s last words to
his followers were: “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work
out your own liberation.”
2. The body of disciples of the Buddha or an organisation
of monks is called Sangha. Buddha founded a sangha. The
monks too became teachers of dhamma.
3. These monks lived simple life by possessing only
the essential requisites for survival, such as a bowl to receive food once
a day from the laity. As they lived on alms, they were known as bhikkhus.
4. Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha,
but later women also came to be admitted. The Buddha’s foster
mother, Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to be
ordained as a bhikkhuni. Many women who entered the sangha became
teachers of dhamma.
5. The Buddha’s followers came from many social
groups. They included kings, wealthy men, gahapatis,
workers, slaves and craftspeople.
6. Once persons get into the sangha, all
were regarded as equal, having shed their earlier social identities on
becoming bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. The internal
functioning of the sangha was based on the traditions where
decisions were taken through discussions and voting.
Rules for monks and nuns
1. These are some of the rules laid down in the Vinaya
Pitaka: When a new felt (blanket/rug) has been made by a bhikkhu, it is to
be kept for (at least) six years.
2. Before the completion of six years if a Bhikku wanted to
use a new one he has to be authorised by the other bhikkhus – it is to be forfeited
and confessed.
3. In case a bhikkhu may accept two or three bowls
of cakes or cooked grain-meal from a house if he so desires. If he
should accept more than that, it is to be confessed.
4. Having accepted the two or three bowls and having taken
them from there, he is to share them among the bhikkhus.
5. Any bhikkhu, who is leaving the lodging which
belongs to the sangha, must inform to other Bhikkus.
Chaityas
1. From earliest times, people tended to regard certain
places as sacred. These included sites with special trees or unique
rocks, or sites of awe-inspiring natural beauty. These sites, with small
shrines attached to them, were sometimes described as chaityas.
2. Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas.
It also describes places associated with the Chaitya may
also have been derived from the word chita, meaning a funeral
pyre, and by extension a funerary mound.
What are Stupas?
Stupas are semi circular mount like structures in relics of
Buddha are buried.
Where were stupas built?
Stupas
were built in the places associated with Buddha’s life –
1. Lumbini-where he was born
2. Bodh Gaya -Where he attained enlightenment
3. Sarnath -Where he gave his first sermon( public speech)
and
4. Kusinagara -Where he attained nibbana (Death) each
of these places came to be regarded as sacred.
5. By the 200 BCE a number of stupas, including
those at Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath were built.
Why were stupas built?
1. Stupas were built because relics of the Buddha such
as his bodily remains or objects used by him were buried there.
2. According to a Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka
distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered
the construction of stupas over them.
How were stupas built?
1. Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of stupas
record donations made for building and decorating them. Some
donations were made by kings such as the Satavahanas; others were made by
guilds, such as associations of ivory workers.
2. Hundreds of donations were made by women and men who
mention their names, place from where they came and their occupations and names
of their relatives.
3. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also
contributed towards building these monuments.
The structure of the stupa
1. The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular
mound of earth called anda. Gradually, it evolved into a
more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes.
2. Above the anda was the harmika, a
balcony like structure that represented the abode of the gods.
3. Arising from the harmika was
a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatrior
umbrella. Around the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space from the
secular world.
4. The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were
plain except for the stone railings. Later wooden fence and the gateways
were richly carved and installed at the four cardinal points.
5. Later, the mound of the stupas came to be
elaborately carved with niches and sculptures as at Amaravati, and
Shahji- ki-Dheri in Pakistan.
Role
of Begums in preserving the Stupa at Sanchi
1. Nineteenth-century Europeans like the French and English
sought Shahjehan Begum’s permission to take away the eastern gateway,
which was the best preserved, to be displayed in museums in France and England.
But she refused.
2. The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan
Begum, provided money for the preservation of the ancient site.
That is why John Marshall dedicated his important volumes on Sanchi to Sultan
Jehan.
3. She funded the museum that was built
there as well as the guesthouse where John Marshall lived
4. She also funded the publication of the volumes written
by John Marshall.
5. The stupa complex has survived due to wise decisions of
Begums, and escaped from the eyes of railway contractors, builders, and
those looking for finds to carry away to the museums of Europe.
The
Fate of Amaravati Stupa
1. A local raja of Amaravathi wanted to build a temple from
the ruins of the stupa at Amaravati. He decided to use the stone, and
thought there might be some treasure buried in what seemed to be a hill.
2. Some years later, a British official named Colin
Mackenzie visited the site. He found several pieces of sculpture and made
detailed drawings of them, these reports were never published to protect the
Stupa.
3. In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur visited Amaravati and
collected several sculpture panels and took them away to Madras.
These came to be called the Elliot marbles after him.
4. By the 1850s, some of the slabs from Amaravati were
taken to different places: a) To the Asiatic Society of Bengal at
Calcutta b) To the India Office in Madras and some
even to London.
5. It was usual to find these sculptures adorning
the gardens of British administrators.
View of H.H. Cole, about the preservation of ancient monuments:
1. He wrote: “It seems to me a suicidal and
indefensible policy to allow the country to be looted of original works of
ancient art.”
2. He believed that museums should have
plaster-cast facsimiles of sculpture, whereas the originals should
remain where they had been found.
3. Unfortunately, Cole did not succeed in
convincing the authorities about Amaravati, although his plea
for in situ (in the original place) preservation was adopted
in the case of Sanchi.
Why
did Sanchi survive while Amaravati did not?
1. Perhaps Amaravati was discovered before scholars
understood the value of the finds and realised how critical it was to preserve
things instead of removing them from the site.
2. When Sanchi was “discovered” in 1818, three of its four
gateways were still standing, the fourth was lying on the spot where it had
fallen and the mound was in good condition.
3. Points 3,4,5,6,7,8( about sanchi and Amaravathi stupas)
Stories in stone
1. Art historians who have carefully studied the Ist sculpture
at Sanchi identify it as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka. This
is a story about a generous prince who gave away everything to a Brahmana, and
went to live in the forest with his wife and children.
2. According to hagiographies, the Buddha attained
enlightenment while meditating under a tree. Many early sculptors did not
show the Buddha in human form – instead, they showed his
presence through symbol of an empty
seat to indicate the meditation of the Buddha.
3.
The Stupa was
meant to represent the mahaparinibbana (death)
4. Another symbol was the wheel. This stood for
the first sermon of the Buddha, at Sarnath.
5. A beautiful woman swinging from the edge of the gateway,
holding onto a tree. Scholars realized that it could be a representation of
a shalabhanjika. According to popular belief, this was a woman
whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit.
6. Some of the finest depictions of animals are found in
sanchi. These animals include elephants, horses, monkeys and cattle.
7. While the Jatakas contain several animal
stories that are depicted at Sanchi, it is likely that many of these animals
were carved to create lively scenes to draw viewers. Elephants were
depicted to signify strength and wisdom.
8. Another motif is a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants
which are sprinkling water on her as if performing an abhisheka or
consecration. While some historians identify the figure as Maya,
the mother of the Buddha, others identify her with a popular goddess, Gajalakshmi –
literally, the goddess of good fortune – who is associated with elephants.
9. The serpent motif, which is found on several
pillars, seems to be derived from popular traditions, James Fergusson,
considered Sanchi to be a centre of serpent worship.
The Division of Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana
1. By the first century CE, there is evidence of
changes in Buddhist ideas and practices.
2. Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to
self-effort in achieving nibbana. Besides, the Buddha was regarded
as a human being who attained enlightenment through his own efforts. Those who
adopted these beliefs were described as Hinayana or the “lesser
vehicle”.
3. However, gradually the idea of a saviour emerged.
Buddha was regarded as a God the one who could ensure salvation. Those who
adopted these beliefs were described as Mahayana or the “greater
vehicle”.
4. Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta also
developed. Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings they
accumulated merit through their efforts not to attain nibbana but
to help others.
5. The worship of images of the Buddha and
Bodhisattas became an important part of Mahayana tradition.
The growth of Puranic Hinduism
1. Vaishnavism, a form of Hinduism within which
Vishnu was worshipped as the principal deity.
2. Shaivism, a tradition within which Shiva was
regarded as the chief god.
3. In such worship the bond between the devotee and the god
was visualized as one of love and devotion,
4. Within the Vaishnavism many cults developed around
the various avatars or incarnations of the deity. Ten avatars
were recognized within the tradition.
5. Avatars were forms that the deity was believed to have
assumed in order to save the world whenever the world was threatened by
evil forces.
6. It is likely that different avatars were popular
in different parts of the country. Recognizing each of these local
deities as a form of Vishnu was one way of creating a more unified religious
tradition.
7. Shiva, for instance, was symbolized by the linga, although
he was occasionally represented in human form too. All such representations
depicted a complex set of ideas about the deities and their attributes through
symbols such as headdresses, ornaments and weapons (auspicious
objects) the deities hold in their hands – how they are seated.
8. To understand the meanings of these sculptures historians
have to be familiar with the stories behind them – many of which are contained
in the Puranas, compiled by Brahmanas
9. Puranas contained much that had been composed and been
in circulation for centuries including stories about gods and goddesses.
Generally, they were written in simple Sanskrit verse, and were meant to be
read aloud to everybody, including women and Shudras, who did not have access
to Vedic learning.
Building temples
1. The early temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha, with
a single doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the image.
2. Gradually, a tall structure, known as the shikhara,
was built over the central shrine. Temple walls were often decorated with
sculptures.
3. Later temples became far more elaborate –
with assembly halls, huge walls and gateways, and arrangements for supplying
water.
4. One of the unique features of early temples was that
some of the temples were hollowed out of huge rocks, as artificial
caves (Rock cut temples). The tradition of building artificial caves was an
old one. Some of the earliest of these were constructed in the third
century BCE on the orders of Asoka for renouncers who belonged to the
Ajivika (fatalist) sect.
5. This tradition evolved through various stages and
culminated much later – in the eighth century – in the carving out of an entire
temple, that of Kailashnatha (a name of Shiva) in Maharashtra.
European Scholars with the unfamiliar Indian sculptures
1. In nineteenth century European scholars first saw some
of the sculptures of gods and goddesses; they could not understand what these
were about. Sometimes, they were horrified by what seemed to them grotesque
figures, with multiple arms and heads or with combinations of human and animal
forms.
2. These early scholars tried to make sense of what
appeared to be strange images by comparing them with sculptures of ancient
Greece. While they often found early Indian sculpture inferior to the works of
Greek artists.
3. European scholars were very excited when they discovered
images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas that were evidently based on Greek models.
These were, more often than not, found in the northwest, in cities such as
Taxila and Peshawar, where Indo-Greek rulers had established kingdoms in the
second century BCE.
4. As these images were closest to the Greek statues these
scholars were familiar with, they were considered to be the best examples of
early Indian art (Gandhara Art-Use of Greek style to make sculptures for Indian
Gods or religious teachers)
5. In effect, these scholars adopted a strategy we all
frequently use – devising meaning from the familiar to make sense of the
unfamiliar.
If text and sculpture do not match what do Art Historians do?
1. Art historians often draw upon textual traditions to
understand the meaning of sculptures. While this is certainly a far more
efficacious strategy than comparing Indian images with Greek statues, it is not
always easy to use.
2. One of the most intriguing examples of this is a famous
sculpture along a huge rock surface in Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu).
3. Art historians have searched through the Puranas to
identify it and are sharply divided in their opinions.
4. Some feel that this depicts the descent of the river
Ganga from heaven – the natural cleft through the centre of the rock surface
might represent the river. The story itself is narrated in the Puranas and the
epics.
5. Others feel that it represents a story from the Mahabharata –
Arjuna doing penance on the river bank in order to acquire arms – pointing to
the central figure of an ascetic.
